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Introduction Lactococcus is a genus of Gram-positive, catalase-negative, non-spore-forming cocci, usually arranged in pairs or short chains. They are facultative anaerobes and are best known for their beneficial role in dairy fermentation (e.g., cheese and buttermilk production). Although generally regarded as low-virulence organisms, Lactococcus species can act as opportunistic pathogens, especially in immunocompromised individuals. Pathogenicity Normally part of food-associated and environmental microbiota Opportunistic infections reported in: Immunocompromised patients Elderly individuals Patients with valvular heart disease, malignancy,...

Introduction Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne RNA virus belonging to the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. It is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, including South and Southeast Asia. Humans are dead-end hosts, while pigs and wading birds act as amplifying reservoirs. Transmission occurs mainly through Culex mosquitoes (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). Pathogenicity Virus enters via mosquito bite → local replication → viremia Crosses the blood–brain barrier → infects neurons Causes inflammation, neuronal degeneration,...

Introduction of Fungal Elements in KOH Mount of Urine Microscopy Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) mount is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective microscopic technique used to detect fungal elements in various clinical specimens, including urine samples. When fungal infection of the urinary tract (funguria) is suspected—especially in immunocompromised, diabetic, or catheterized patients—KOH mount helps visualize yeast cells, pseudohyphae, or hyphae directly under the microscope. The KOH solution digests background debris, leaving fungal cell walls intact for clear visualization. Fungal...